Lan Na and Manipur Kingdoms: Their Histories and Gender Roles
Keywords:
gender roles, history, Lan Na, ManipurAbstract
Objectives: This article examines discourse and comprehensively analyzes gender roles of Lan Na Kingdom, Thailand, and Manipur Kingdom, India, within their historical milieu and contextual framework.
Methods: The present study utilized historical and documentary research methodologies, comprehensively analyzing primary sources, secondary sources, and online databases. The data analysis entails using the content analysis approach and presenting the results through a descriptive analysis.
Results: Gender roles are delineated within the spatial context and are formulated through intricate socio-cultural exchanges between individuals of the male and female genders. The research showed that the social and economic environment of the Lan Na and Manipur kingdoms improved and developed women's traits, allowing them to play gender-specific roles in society at the time. The socio-economic and political dynamics were intricately intertwined, fostering an environment where women could actively engage in various roles and contribute to collaborative endeavors alongside their male counterparts. 1) In politics and government, it was noteworthy to observe that the women of Lan Na society assumed gender roles that symbolized their possession of political power. In political engagement, observing the active and influential role that Meitei women had assumed, mainly through their participation in various social movements, was noteworthy. 2) From an economic standpoint, it revealed the active involvement of women in community trade and their significant role in managing familial and communal economies. 3) The socio-cultural aspects under consideration pertain to the traditional societies of Lan Na and Manipur. These societies had fostered a distinct culture centered around the veneration of deities, with the added influence of ancestral spirits. Consequently, this religious framework shaped the gender roles within these communities, explicitly positioning Lan Na women and Meitei women as prominent figures in faith and spiritual leadership. It acknowledged that women were responsible for fostering the profound connection between the sacred and the human realm. Along with their male counterparts, women played a consequential role in the collective advancement of society.
Application of this study: This study provides an opportunity to examine and analyze the correlation between men and women and their gender roles within the historical context and background of the Lan Na and Manipur kingdoms. This study can serve as a valuable tool for studying the discipline of history; the topic of discussion pertains to the field of gender studies and its intersection with area-based studies.
Downloads
References
Agarwala, T. (2023). Feminist icons or violent vigilantes? The contentious role of Meira Paibis in Manipur’s conflict. Scroll. Retrieved 11 August 2023, from https://scroll.in/article/1053761/feminist-icons-or-violent-vigilantes-the-contentious-role-of-meira-paibis-in-manipurs-conflict.
Archavanitkul, K. (2011). Transition in Thai Society. Journal of population and social studies, 15(1), 43-66. (In Thai)
Arphinchaphong, P. (1992). Chao Phrai and the changes in Lan Na society during 1884-1933. Master Thesis, M.A. in Education, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok. (In Thai)
Bock, C. (1986). Thong thin sayam yuk phraputthachao luang [Temple and elephants]. Edited by Sathien Phantharangsi and Amphon Thikhara. Bangkok: Matichon. (In Thai)
Barua, I. & Devi, A. (2004). Women market of Manipur: An anthropo-historical perspective. Journal of Human Ecology, 15(2), 129-133.
Beasley, C. (2005). Gender and sexuality: critical theories, critical thinkers. London: SAGE Publications.
Bhargava, M. B. (2023). When Manipur is burning, men don't seem bothered, women are the only hope—Counterview. https://www.counterview.net/2023/06/when-manipur-is-burning-men-dont-seem.html.
Bharucha, R. (1991). Politics of indigenous theatre: Kanhailal in Manipur. Economic and Political Weekly, 26(11/12), 747-754.
Brara, N. V. (1998). Politics, society and cosmology in. India's North East. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Chanraeng, T. (2018). History of Buddhism in Lanna: An analysis data from manuscripts and archeological sources. Journal of Buddhist Studies, 10(1), 39-50. (in Thai)
Chanu, T. L. (2015). Patriarchy in disguise: The role and status of women of Meitei society in Manipur part 1. E-PAO. Retrieved 10 October 2023, from http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=features.Spotlight_On_Women.Patriarchy_in_Disguise_The_Role_and_Status_of_Women_of_Meitei_society_in_Manipur_Part_1
Chotisukrat, S. (trans.). (1968). Tamnan chao chet ton [Chao chet ton chronicle]. Chiang Mai: Sanguan Printing. (In Thai)
Cohen, P. T. & Wijeyewardene, G. (1984). Introduction to spirit cults and the position of women in Northern Thailand. Mankind, 14(4), 249-262.
Devi, C. S. (2016). Goddess Emoinu and her significance in the life of Meitei women. The Eastern Anthropologist, 69(3-4), 391-401.
Devi, K. R. (2021). Manipur: state formation in pre-colonial period. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 10(11) Ser. II, 39-41.
Dodd, W. C. (1996). The Tai race: Elder brother of the Chinese. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Dun, E.W. (1981). Gazetteer of Manipur. Manipur: Vivek.
Ganjanapan, A. & Ramitanon, C. (1988). Phithi leang phi mod muang Phare [The ritual of spirit worship in Phare province]—seminar proceedings. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Teacher’s College. (In Thai)
Government of India. (2012). The North-Eastern areas (re-organisation) and other related laws (amendment) ACT, 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2024, from https://www.india.gov.in/north-eastern-areas-reorganisation-amendment-act-2012?page=1.
Government of India. (n.d.). Ima Keithel. Indian Culture, Discover, Learn, Immense, Connect. Retrieved 1 November 2023, from https://indianculture.gov.in/snippets/ima-keithel.
Grabowsky, V. (2005). 2005. Population and state in Lan Na prior to the mid-sixteenth century. Journal of the Siam Society, 93, 1-68.
He, X. H. & Dinlansagoon, M. (2021). The patriarchal society: A reflection on men having power and rights over women from the novel "Behind the Painting" of KulapSaipradit. The 12th Hatyai National and International Conference, pp. 273-283.
Helen, R.K. (2012). Women and socio-political movement in recent past and present Manipur. New Delhi: Sunmarg Publishers and Distributors.
Hodson, T.C. (1908). The Meitheis. London: William Clowes and Sons, Limited. Retrieved 11 September 2023, from https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.158175/page/n7/mode/2up.
Hoominfar, E. (2019). Gender socialization. Leal Filho, W., Azul, A., Brandli, L., Özuyar, P., Wall, T. (eds) Gender Equality. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham.
Indrakanta, N. (2018). Ban on male vendors. The Telegraph Online. Retrieved 20 December 2023, from https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/ban-on-male-vendors/cid/1446665.
Jenjira, S (2004). Phasit Lan Na [Lan Na Proverb]. Third edition. Bangkok: Satapornbooks. (In Thai)
John, A. N., and others. (2017). Gender socialization during adolescence in low- and middle-income countries: Conceptualization, influences, and outcomes. Innocenti Discussion Papers. No. IDP_2017_01. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti.
Kabui, G. (1991). History of Manipur. New Delhi: National Publishing House.
Kamei, G. (2004). A History of Manipur Vol.1: A Pre-Colonial Period. New Delhi: National Publishing House.
Kamei, B. (2017). Trade connection of Manipur with Southeast Asia in the pre-British period. E-PAO. Retrieved 11 October 2023, from http://epao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.Trade_connection_of_Manipur_with_Southeast_Asia_in_Pre_British_period_Part_1_By_Budha_Kamei
Key informant, (2022, July 16). Interview. personal communication.
Key informant, (2023, November 3). Interview. personal communication.
Kipgen, T. G. (2010). Women’s roles in the 20th century Manipur: A historical study. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications.
Khan, M. S. (2008). The origin of Manipuris and their religious belief today. Annual Review of Ethnic Affairs, 4(1), 35-52.
Khundrakpam, P. & Sarmah, J.K. (2023). Patriarchy and patriarchal customs in the Meitei society of Manipur. Women’s Studies International Forum, 96, 1-10.
Kruathai, P. (2009). Pleng krom dek Lan Na [Lan Na Lullaby]. 3rd ed. Chiang Mai: Suthep Press. (In Thai)
Kshetrimayum, M. (2018). Politics of dominance in Meitei society. Economic & Political Weekly, 53(4), 26-28.
Little, W. (2023). Introduction to Sociology (3rd Canadian ed). BCcampus. Retrieved 3 August 2023, from https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontoso
Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure. New York: The Free Press.
Millet, C. (2000). Sexual politics. Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
Monwithoon, S. (trans). (1974). Chinnakan malipakorn. [Jinakālamālī: Chiang Mai chronicle] 4th ed. n.p. (In Thai)
Na Chiang Mai, W. (1996). Khattiyanari Sri Lan Na [Royal Highness Ladies of Lan Na]. Bangkok: Center for the promotion of art culture, Chiang Mai University. (In Thai)
Na Nagara, P. (1970). Mangraisat chabap nortong [Mangraisat in Nortong version]. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Teacher’s College. (In Thai)
Na Nagara, P. (1981). Mangraisat chabap wat saohai [Mangraisat in saohai version]. n.p. (In Thai)
National Commission for Schedule Tribes, Government of India. (2023). Retrieved 10 January 2024, from State / Union Territory wise list of Scheduled Tribes in India. https://ncst.nic.in/content/other-information-relating-tribals.
Ningthoujam, Y. (2021). Economic, social and demographic impact of Burmese invasion of Manipur. Space and Culture, India, 9(1), 29-37.
Oinam, A. C. & Thoidingjam, P. (2020). A brief review of Meira Paibi: A women’s movement in Manipur. Asian Review of Social Sciences, 9(2), 20-23
Ongsakul, S. (trans.) (2022). Phuen muang Nan chabub wat Phra Kerd [Nan chronicle: Phra Kerd temple version]. Bangkok, Amarin. (In Thai)
Ongsakul, S. (2023). Prawattisat Lan Na [Lan Na history]. 13th ed. Chiang Mai: Chian Mai University Press. (In Thai)
Panwar, T. (2017). Women Market, Social Economic Impact, Case study on Ema Keithel (Women Market) Manipur India. International Journal of Advance Research and Development, 2(7), 44-46.
Parratt, S. N. (1989). Garib Niwaz: wars and religious policy in 18th century Manipur. Intemationales Asienforum, 20(3-4), 295-302.
Pemberton, R. B. (1979). The eastern frontier of India. Delhi: Mittal Publication.
Phongsriphien, W. (1996). Papai sifu-papai tatian: chiang main ai ekasarn prawatsart chin boran [Babai xifu-Babai dadian: Chiang Mai through the historical document of ancient China] Bangkok: Committee to search for Thai history in Chinese records, Office of the Prime Minister. (In Thai)
Phongsriphien, W. (2006). Klong tatkham praphuttha khosachan [The law of praphuttha khosachan]. Bangkok: Samlada Part. (In Thai)
Phanichphant, V. (2005). Withi Lan Na [The way of Lan Na]. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. (In Thai)
Population Census. (2023). Manipur population. Retrieved 10 January 2024, from https://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/manipur.html.
Ramitanon, C. (2002). Phi chao nai [Spirit of the nobility]. Chiang Mai: Ming Muang Press. (In Thai)
Ratana, P. (2009). Social strategies in creating roles for women in Lan Na and Lan Sang from the thirteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Doctoral dissertation, University of Muenster, Muenster.
Ratana, P. (2019). Lan Na women and education. Khuang Phaya, 14, 110-143. (In Thai)
Ratana, P. (2022). Gender socialization of Lanna women’s characteristics in the context of Lanna. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 48(1), 67–84. (In Thai)
Roces, M. (2022). Gender in Southeast Asia. London: Cambridge University Press.
Rodphet, S., Thantawanit, T, and Prasannam, N. (2018). Women and patriarchy in Uthis Haemamool’s novels. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 14(1), 53-80. (In Thai)
Romeo, R. (2008). The role of matriarchies and patriarchies in social evolution vis-à-vis Bachofen and his influence on the social sciences. Master thesis, Texas A&M University, Texas. Retrieved 12 December 2023, from https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/85971/Romero.pdf.
Sanajaoba, N. (1988). Manipur, past and present: The heritage and ordeals of a civilization, Volume 4. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.
Sebastian, R. (2021). Refashioning kingship in Manipur in the 18th century: The politico-religious projects of Garibniwaz and Bhagyacandra. Religions, 12(1041), 1-27.
Singh, M. K. (1988). Religion and culture of Manipur. Delhi: Manas Publication.
Singh, A. M. (2010). Conflicts in Manipur. Bangalore: National Institute of Advance Studies.
Singh, P. B. (2013, May 16). The role of Manipuri women in administration Part 1. Retrieved 15 December 2023, from http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.History_of_Manipur.The_Role_Of_Manipuri_Women_In_Administration_Part_1
Singh, M. (2016). Marriage diplomacy between the states of Manipur and Burma, 18th to 19th centuries. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 77, 874-879.
Sing, N. N. (2018). Multiple roles of maibis in Meitei society and culture: Are they still important? Journal of Indian Anthropological Society, 53, 145-160.
Singh, N. N. (2018). Meitei religion: An Emic Perspective. Spectrum, 6(1), 72-80.
Singh, H. N. & Singh, Th. I. (2023). Lullap: A Socio-Economic and Political Organisation. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 10(1), 757-759.
Singh, S. K. & Chaoreikanba, M. M. (2022). Laipou and its Philosophy. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 9(6), 241-245.
Singh. P. N. K. (n.d.). The historical, archaeological, religious & cultural significance of “Kangla”: The ancient citadel of Manipur. E-PAO. Retrieved 5 September 2023, from http://books.e-pao.net/Heritage_Manipur/epShowChapter.asp?src=kangla
Sophia, A. (2021). Women’s empowerment in Manipur. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 4(1), 25-39.
Srichampa, S. (2017). The Iron Women of Manipur, India. Silpakorn University e-Journal (Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts), 37(2), 151-176.
Sudhir, H. (2012). Social history of Manipur. Imphal: Sunmarg Publishers and Distributors.
Tanrattanakul, C. (trans,) (2017). Kueng satawat nai mu khon Thai lae khon Lao: Attachiwaprawat khong satsanachan Denial McGillivray D.D. [A Half Century Among the Siamese and the Lao: An Autobiography]. Bangkok: Inter Publishing Enterprise. (In Thai).
Tarapot, P. (1996). Insurgency movement in northeastern India. New Delhi: Vikash Publishing House Pvt.
Watcharasart, B. (2000). Pahsit Khammuang Neua [Northern Thai Proverb]. Second edition. Chiang Mai: Tharathong Kanphim. (In Thai)
West, C. & Zimmerman, D.H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125-151.
Wichienkeeo, A. & Janhom, L. (1985). Wikhro kotmai Lan Na boran: prachum kotmai khropkhrua [The analysis of La Na ancient law: the family act]. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Teacher’s College. (In Thai)
Wongthet, P. (2006). Phet saphawa nai suwannaphum (usa kha-ne) [Gender in Southeast Asia]. Bangkok: Matichon. (In Thai)
World Health Organization. (2004). Gender and health research. Geneva Switzerland: Department of Gender, Women and Health (GWH).
Wu, S. & Li, B. (2018). Ideology of patriarchy and the development of the image of ghost in Thai literature: A case study of Mae Nak. Burapha Arts Journal, 21(1-2), 131-147.
Wyatt, D. K. & Wichienkeeo, A. (1998). The Chiang Mai chronicle. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Yumnam, S. (2020). The maibi phenomenon: A site of crisis and resolution. Quest Journals, 8(12), 59-68.
Yumnam, R. (n.d.) Women's Protest Mobilisations in Manipur: A View through a Feminist Lens. Academia. Retrieved 20 October 2023, from https://www.academia.edu/27629019/Womens_Protest_Mobilisations_in_Manipur_A_View_through_a_Feminist_Lens.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Arts and Thai Studies
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
